Short answer: before every flight, someone calculates how much the aircraft weighs and where its centre of gravity sits. If the calculation is wrong, the aircraft may take off with the wrong thrust or become hard to control. There were about 38,000 aircraft loading errors in 2025, according to IATA. Preventing them is the job of the Loadmaster and load control.
What is weight and balance?
It is the calculation of the aircraft’s total mass (aircraft, people, baggage, cargo and fuel) and of the position of its centre of gravity. EASA explains that more mass increases take-off and landing distances and fuel burn, and that weight distribution affects stability and control.
The centre of gravity must always stay within the limits set in the flight manual, as SKYbrary notes. Before every flight, the captain receives the mass and balance documentation and must approve it.
Which documents are used?
| Document | What it is for |
|---|---|
| Load sheet | Total mass and centre of gravity for the flight, approved by the captain |
| LIR (Loading Instruction/Report) | Loading instructions; the loading supervisor signs that they were followed |
| LMC (Last Minute Change) | Late changes, within limits set by the operator |
| NOTOC | Notice to the captain of dangerous goods on board |
The European rules are in EASA’s guidance for Part-CAT. The UK CAA explains that any LMC must be brought to the captain’s attention and entered on the documentation. SKYbrary describes the NOTOC as the only regulatory source of information to the crew on dangerous goods carried as cargo.
How much does EASA assume a passenger weighs?
Airlines can use standard masses instead of weighing each person. EASA’s current values, for aircraft with 20 or more seats, include hand baggage, according to AMC1 CAT.POL.MAB.100(e):
| Passenger | Scheduled flights | Holiday charters |
|---|---|---|
| Male | 88 kg | 83 kg |
| Female | 70 kg | 69 kg |
| Adult (30 or more seats) | 84 kg | 76 kg |
| Child (2 to 12) | 35 kg | 35 kg |
For checked bags, EASA uses 11 kg per bag on domestic flights, 13 kg within Europe and 15 kg on intercontinental flights. A 2022 study of almost 2 million baggage records found no significant change from the previous study.
What can go wrong?
Three investigated cases show the types of error.
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A system error. In July 2020, a TUI Boeing 737 took off from Birmingham with 38 women checked in as children, because a system treated the title ‘Miss’ as a child. The real take-off mass was 1,244 kg higher than the load sheet showed. The AAIB concluded that safety was not compromised, but the error exceeded the operator’s 500 kg last-minute-change limit.
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Poorly restrained cargo. In 2013, a National Airlines Boeing 747 freighter crashed at Bagram, Afghanistan, killing all 7 crew. According to the NTSB, armoured vehicles in the hold moved aft because they were improperly restrained, damaging control systems.
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Centre of gravity out of limits. In 2003, an Air Midwest Beech 1900D crashed at Charlotte, USA, killing 21 people. The NTSB estimated the centre of gravity at 45.5% of mean aerodynamic chord, against an aft limit of 40%. The case led the FAA to review average passenger weights.
Do loading errors still happen?
Yes. IATA received reports of about 38,000 aircraft loading errors in 2025. Airlines using digital load control systems report cutting those errors by more than 90%.
Technology helps, but someone still has to read the load sheet, spot a number that doesn’t make sense and decide. In the TUI case, the crew saw a 1,606 kg difference between the flight plan and the load sheet and put it down to normal passenger changes.
What does a Loadmaster do?
Plans loading within the aircraft’s structural limits, calculates mass and balance, prepares the load sheet, handles last-minute changes and decides how to restrain special loads. IATA offers specific training for this role, aimed at ramp agents, supervisors and future load controllers.
What is IITA's Loadmaster | Air Cargo Operations programme like?
The 6-month Loadmaster | Air Cargo Operations programme is online, with live classes from 18:00 to 21:00, and covers weight and balance, load planning, aircraft loading and air cargo operations. It requires Year 12 and B1 English, with no aviation experience. It includes an optional one-month internship at an international air base.
Frequently asked questions
What happens if the centre of gravity is too far forward or aft?
The aircraft can become harder to control. That is why the centre of gravity must always stay within the flight manual limits.
Do airlines weigh passengers?
Usually not. They use EASA standard masses, such as 84 kg per adult on scheduled flights, including hand baggage.
What is a NOTOC?
The notice to the captain of dangerous goods in the cargo: what they are, how much they weigh and where they are.
Do I need experience for the Loadmaster | Air Cargo Operations programme?
No. Year 12 and B1 English are enough.
Sources
- IATA, 2025 ground handling data, 19 May 2026
- EASA, Passenger weight and why it matters, 14 August 2024
- EASA, AMC1 CAT.POL.MAB.100(e) and AMC/GM to Part-CAT
- EASA, 2022 standard weights study, 9 November 2022
- AAIB, Boeing 737-8K5 G-TAWG, 8 April 2021
- NTSB via FAA, National Airlines 102; NTSB, Air Midwest 5481 recommendations, 5 March 2004
- UK CAA, CAP 1008 — Last minute changes, February 2014
- SKYbrary, Mass and Balance and NOTOC
- IATA, Aircraft Weight and Balance course
